Betula Sp. - Birch

Family: Betulaceae (Birch family) [E-flora]

"Stem: trunk < 30 m; bark smooth or scaly, aromatic, often peeling in thin layers; twigs puberulent, glandular, or both; lenticels prominent; winter buds sessile, 3-scaled. Leaf: glandular-hairy; blade 2--5 cm, wide-elliptic, base +- truncate to tapered. Staminate Inflorescence: 2--7 cm; bracts each subtending 3 flowers, 3 bractlets. Pistillate Inflorescence: 2--3 cm; bracts each subtending 3 flowers, 3 bractlets. Staminate Flower: sepals 4; stamens 2. Pistillate Flower: sepals 0. Fruit: many, in a non-cone-like catkin, not enclosed by bract, winged; bracts lobed, papery, released with but not attached to fruit.
Species In Genus: 50 species: circumboreal. Etymology: (Latin: birch) Note: Important wildlife food; wood used for interior finishing; many species cultivated." [Jepson]

Local Species;

• Betula papyrifera - Paper birch [E-flora][PCBC]
  
• Betula pendula - European birch [TSFTK][E-flora]
  
• Betula pubescens - Silver birch [E-flora]
  
• Betula pumila var glandulifera - Low birch [E-flora]

Other Species in B.C.

• Betula occidentalis - Water Birch [E-flora]

Key to Betula

• 1 Shrubs, typically with several trunks and not more than 4 m tall (mostly restricted to bogs and other wet habitats)
• 2 Leaf blades not often so much as 2.5 cm long; twigs with conspicuous resin glands than make them appear warty (Alaska to Calif. and eastward across North America) ..................... B. glandulosa Bog birch, Resin birch
• 2 Leaf blades usually at least 2.5 cm long; twigs with small, inconspicuous resin glands, not obviously warty (Northwest Territories to Calif. and eastward across North America) ............... B. pumila Dwarf birch
• Betula glandulosa and B. pumila intergrade in areas where they coexist.
• 1 Trees, typically with a single trunk and to more than 10 m tall
• 3 Bark peeling off in thin sheets; leaf blades typically with a rounded base, with not more than 9 pairs of lateral veins, and at least slightly hairy on the underside; central lobe of scales of pistillate catkins as long or longer than the lateral lobes (Alaska to Wash. and eastward across North America; the variety W of the Cascades in Brit. Col. and Wash. is commutata) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . B. Papyrifera Paper birch
• 3 Bark peeling off in narrow strips; leaf blades typically with a broadly angular to wedge-shaped base, with as many as 18 pairs of lateral veins, and not hairy on the underside; central lobe of scales of pistil- late catkins shorter than the lateral lobes (commonly cultivated and sometimes established in situations where it may appear to be native) ................ B. pendula Weeping birch, White birch (Europe)

Another cultivated European species that sometimes escapes is B. pubescens, silver birch. Its leaf blades are shaped like those of B. pendula, but the undersides are hairy. [PWOBC]

"It is interesting and somewhat surprising in this regard that smoothbarked trees such as Betula and Fagus have the lowest transpirational rates and those with fissured bark such as Quercus and Pinus have the highest transpirational rates (Geurten, 1950)." [Ahmadjian Lichens]

"The genus Betula probably has its ongm in the NE of Asia and consists of about 60 species [20]. The birch species are widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere, but they are limited to the temperate and arctic zones." [Ahuja MWP]

"Four birch species are native to Europe. Two of them -Betula pendula (Roth) and Betula pubescens (Ehrh) - are tree forms and the others - Betula nana (L) and Betula humulis (Schrank) - are bush forms. The birch species are well known for their peculiar bark, striking trunks and graceful branches, which make them valuable as garden trees." [Ahuja MWP]

Hazards

• Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "The aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons in birch tar are irritating to the skin. Do not use in patients with oedema or with poor kidney or heart functions [301]" [PFAF]
• Methyl salicylate
• "Although it was once widely used to alleviate rheumatism, gout, scrofula, bladder infections, neuralgia, and as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic, the oil is toxic and easily absorbed through the skin. Fatalities have been reported following its use." [Daniel F. Austin]
• B. Papyrifera; "Prolonged boiling in closed containers could concentrate the salicylic acid of birch and spark problems with those hypersensitive to aspirin. Steeped gently as a tea, the herb is generally regarded as quite safe." [Schofield]

Uses

• Birch Tar
• "In Russia, extracting oil of birch tar is a major industry. This product repels insects and adds durability to leather. In A Modern Herbal, Mrs. Grieve writes ". . . that books bound in russia leather are not liable to become mouldy." Oil of wintergreen is another commercial byproduct. Curiously, certain birch species yield an oil virtually identical in composition to that produced by the wintergreen plant, Gaultheria procumbens. When not produced synthetically, this substance is most frequently distilled from the twigs and bark of Betula lenta. It is used to flavor toothpaste, candies, and medicines." [Schofield]

Food Uses:

• Inner Bark:
• Betula Sp; “Inner Bark of tree-sized birches is another food source; it can be used year-round for emergencies, but is tastiest in spring when the sap is running. It may be nibbled raw, shredded and boiled like noodles, added to soups, or dried and ground as a flour substitute.”[Schofield]
• Betula pendula; "Inner bark - cooked or dried and ground into a meal[2, 15, 105]. It can be added as a thickener to soups etc or can be mixed with flour for making bread, biscuits etc. Inner bark is generally only seen as a famine food, used when other forms of starch are not available or are in short supply[115, 177, K]....tea is made from the essential oil in the inner bark[21]." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "Inner bark - cooked or dried, ground into a powder then used with cereals for making bread etc[2, 15, 46]. Inner bark is generally only seen as a famine food, used when other forms of starch are not available or are in short supply[177, K]." [PFAF]
• Tea: Betula Sp;Birch twigs, steeped in hot sap, yield a spicy after-dinner brew. [Schofield] "A tea is made from the leaves[15] and another tea is made from the essential oil in the inner bark[21]." [PFAF]
• Young Leaves:
• Betula pendula; "Young leaves - raw or cooked[15]. Young catkins[15]. No more details are given. A tea is made from the leaves[15, 161] " [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "Young leaves - raw or cooked[15, 177]. " [PFAF]
  
• Young Leaves & Catkins:
• Betula Sp;From any species. For spring salads, add with other milder greens and toss with your favourite dressing. Early spring.[Schofield]
• Betula pubescens; "Young catkins[15]. No more details are given." [PFAF]
  
• Tender buds; Betula Sp; Gathered from the small or tall birches, can be tied in a muslin bag and boiled in vegetable and meat stews as a spice. Early spring. [Schofield]
• Sap: Betula pendula; "Sap - raw or cooked. A sweet flavour. It is harvested in early spring, before the leaves unfurl, by tapping the trunk. It makes a pleasant drink[115]. It is often concentrated into a syrup by boiling off the water[2, 9, 13, 15, 177]. Between 4 and 7 litres can be drawn off a mature tree in a day and this will not kill the tree so long as the tap hole is filled up afterwards[115]. However, prolonged or heavy tapping will kill the tree[115]. The flow is best on sunny days following a frost." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "Sap - raw or cooked. A sweet flavour[2, 15, 177]." [PFAF]
• B. pendula: "Birch sap is rich in fructose whereas maple has sucrose. Sucrose is sweeter to the taste and the maple yields more per tree, so maple syrup is by far the bigger commercial industry. On the other hand, birch sap is cool, refreshing and clear. It tastes even better when reduced by simmering down into a golden-brown ambrosia." [BackMed]
• Fermentation: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens;"The sap can be fermented into a beer. An old English recipe for the beer is as follows:- "To every Gallon of Birch-water put a quart of Honey, well stirr'd together; then boil it almost an hour with a few Cloves, and a little Limon-peel, keeping it well scumm'd. When it is sufficiently boil'd, and become cold, add to it three or four Spoonfuls of good Ale to make it work...and when the Test begins to settle, bottle it up . . . it is gentle, and very harmless in operation within the body, and exceedingly sharpens the Appetite, being drunk ante pastum."[269]." [PFAF]

Birch Sap

• When: Sap must be collected in spring before the leaves appear, typically between the first thaws and the start of bud development. In late spring it becomes bitter. The collection period is only about a month per year.[Birch Sap] Early spring.[Schofield]
  
• Tapping: "A tap for directing the flow of birch sap to your bucket can be purchased commercially or made by hollowing seven- or eight-inch-Iong segments of elder stems. Elder pith is soft and pushes out easily, leaving a hollow stem ideal for tapping; remember, this pith is toxic and must be throughly removed. (Some foragers boil their elder taps before use.)" [Schofield] To tap birch trees, drill a one-half-inch hole, two inches deep, at a slight upward angle. Make your hole on the sunny side of a birch that is at least nine inches in diameter. (The tree should be vigorously healthy, with good solid wood.) [Schofield] Once your hole is drilled and tap prepared (taper the end that will be inserted into the tree and cut a notch on the outside to hold the handle of the bucket), just place the tap in the hole. Tie a plastic milk jug or five-gallon bucket onto the tap.[Schofield] A bottle can be hung from a branch with a notch cut in it, and the sap allowed to drain into the bottle.[Birch Sap]
  
• Yield: Check sap buckets two to three times daily. Sap production can range from one gallon (or less) per tree up to ten gallons daily at the height of the season. Taps need to be examined occasionally; after a week or so, holes are often clogged by the coagulating sap, so that the hole and tap must be cleaned out. (A new hole could also be drilled, but I try to minimize impact on the tree whenever possible. When through tapping, I plug the hole with sphagnum moss to seal the tree and protect it from injury.) Sap should be filtered to remove any insects or twigs. [Schofield]
  
• Preservation & Storage: "Fresh birch sap is highly perishable; even if refrigerated, it is stable for only up to 2-5 days. Shelf life can be prolonged by freezing or pasteurization. However pasteurization destroys some ingredients and can alter the taste of the product. Frozen birch sap is fairly stable. In Russia and Belarus commercial birch sap is usually preserved with food-grade acids, mainly phosphoric or citric one, as if some sugar is added to mask acidity, it affects the flavor less than pasteurization."[Birch Sap] When collecting sap for making syrup, vinegar, or alcoholic beverages, be certain to keep the fluids refrigerated or frozen. Process as soon as possible. Sap sours rather quickly in warmth or rain. [Schofield]
  
• Preparation: Constant stirring is recommended as soon as the sap begins to thicken. It takes about twelve hours to boil twenty five gallons of sap to one quart syrup. Fresh undiluted sap can be processed into vinegar or birch beer. [Schofield]
  
• Flavor: "Birch syrup flavor reminds me of molasses. Birch yields one gallon of syrup to very eighty to one hundred gallons of sap. Unless you have an abundance of time and fuel, you may wish to settle for a pint or quart of birch syrup. Using an outdoor evaporator for processing the syrup is highly recommended; if you've ever steamed a stamp from a letter, you have a good idea of what indoor sap-making can do to wallpaper and paint. An evaporator can be easily constructed from a fifty-five- gallon wood-burning drum and a large top-of-the-stove cooking vessel." [Schofield] "Betula spp. (birch); Betulaceae—tree of temperate forests, circumpolar; sap collected in spring, drunk raw, fermented or concentrated; used, e.g., in Alaska, Russia, Ukraine." [ETWP]

Other Uses

• Baskets
• B. papyrifera; "Long ago people used to make piicikaq – birch-bark baskets to hold berries and other things." [Jernigan EYK]
• Compost: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "The leaves are a good addition to the compost heap, improving fermentation[14]." [PFAF]
• Glue: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "A glue is made from the sap[2, 9, 13, 15]." [PFAF]
  
• Charcoal: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "A high quality charcoal is obtained from the bark. It is used by artists, painters etc[13]." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "A black paint is obtained from the soot of the plant[61]." [PFAF]
• Dye: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "A brown dye is obtained from the inner bark" [PFAF] "People in Scotland made a fawn dye from the bark of Betula, and perhaps the American species also served the same purpose (Dwelly 1933)." [Daniel F. Austin]
• Flexible Branches: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "The young branches are very flexible and are used to make whisks, besoms etc[6]. They are also used in thatching[13, 100] and to make wattles[4]." [PFAF]
  
• Compost: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "The leaves are a good addition to the compost heap, improving fermentation [20]." [PFAF]
• Hair: Betula pendula; "The resin glands (the report does not say where these glands are found) are used to make a hair lotion[226]." [PFAF]
• Tar-Oil: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "A tar-oil is obtained from the white bark in spring. It has fungicidal properties and is also used as an insect repellent[4, 13, 100]. It makes a good shoe polish[61]." [PFAF]
• Tannin: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "A decoction of the inner bark is used to preserve cordage[115], it contains up to 16% tannin[178, 223]." [PFAF]
• Fibre: Betula pendula; "Cordage can be made from the fibres of the inner bark[115]. This inner bark can also be separated into thin layers and used as a substitute for oiled paper[4]." [PFAF]
• Wood:
• Betula papyrifera; Bark harvested in spring, summer, or fall. Used as a firestarter or smudge. [AJA 7.2] "Branches that are naturally curved by the weight of snow can be used for sled runners and handles. The wood is hard, but you have to take care of it and varnish it, because it rots easily. The wood burns very hot, so some people do not like to use it in their stoves. The stove metal can get warped from the heat. Sometimes people use a couple of sticks in the middle of other wood" [Jernigan EYK] "Betula papyrifera Marsh. (Betulaceae). paper birch. The Dena’ina of Alaska used the wood to smoke their fish (Kari 1995). Dried rotten wood was used to smoke hides by the Woodland Cree of east-central Saskatchewan, Canada (Leighton 1985). Various other Native Americans chopped new sof wood and mixed it with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973)."
• Betula pendula; " In its rapid life cycle birch pushes upward too fast to develop a strong heart wood, but this makes it perfect for making buckets and canoes." [BackMed] "...the timber is good enough for clog-making in Ireland..." [DPL Watts]
  
• Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "Wood - soft, light, durable. It is used for a wide range of purposes including furniture, tool handles, toys and carving[13, 100, 238].... The wood is also pulped and used for making paper[238]." [PFAF]
• Essential Oil: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "Another report says that an essential oil is obtained from the bark and this, called 'Russian Leather' has been used as a perfume[245].... An oil similar to Wintergreen oil (obtained from Gaultheria procumbens) is obtained from the inner bark[21, 61]. It is used medicinally and also makes a refreshing tea[21]." [PFAF]
  
• Bark: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "The bark is used to make drinking vessels, canoe skins, roofing tiles etc[115]. It is waterproof, durable, tough and resinous.... [17, 186]." [PFAF]
• Preparation: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; "Only the outer bark is removed, this does not kill the tree. It is most easily removed in late spring to early summer.... [17, 186]." [PFAF]
• Cordage: Betula pubescens; "Cordage can be made from the fibres of the inner bark. This inner bark can also be separated into thin layers and used as a substitute for oiled paper[4]." [PFAF]

"Betula papyrifera Marsh. ssp. humilis (Regel) Hult. (paper birch, aat'oo). Outer paper birch bark (k'ii) is peeled from trees and dried for tinder. Bark is collected, usually during the week of 10 June, and made into birchbark baskets (k'ii tyah). Formerly, these baskets were food storage containers, especially for meat and berries, but today they are mostly ornaments and sold to tourists. Food was placed in the basket which was sewn shut with a birchbark lid and spruce root ties, and stored in cold rooms dug into the soil. Canoes (k'ii tr'ih) were formerly constructed of birchbark. Large rectangular sheets of bark (ca. 30-60 cm) were sewn together to form kneeling pads and cushions for the canoe. Birchbark sewn with spruce roots was used to make backpack-type baby carriers. Moose and bird calls were made from pieces of rolled birchbark, ca. 30-45 cm long. Because of its strength and flexibility, birch wood was preferred for making spears, bows and arrows, snowshoes, sleds, and toboggans. It was also carved into large spoon-like ice-removal scoops used in trapping beaver. (No. 900)." [Holloway&Alexander, 1990]

Medicinal Use

• Plant: "The German Commission E Monographs, a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approve Betula species for infections of the urinary tract, kidney and bladder stones, rheumatism (see [302] for critics of commission E)." [PFAF]
• Betula pendula; "A decoction of the leaves and bark is used for bathing skin eruptions[4]. Moxa is made from the yellow fungous excrescences of the wood, which sometimes swell out of the fissures[4]." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "The young shoots and leaves secrete a resinous substance which has acid properties, when combined with alkalis it is a tonic laxative[4]." [PFAF]
• Oil
• Betula pendula; "An oil obtained from the inner bark is astringent and is used in the treatment of various skin afflictions, especially eczema and psoriasis[4, 238]." [PFAF]
• Harvesting: Betula pendula; "The bark is usually obtained from trees that have been felled for timber and can be distilled at any time of the year[238]." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "An oil obtained from the inner bark is astringent and is used in the treatment of various skin afflictions, especially eczema and psoriasis[4, 238]. The bark is usually obtained from trees that have been felled for timber and can be distilled at any time of the year[238]." [PFAF]
• Buds:
• Betula pubescens; "The buds are balsamic[7]." [PFAF]
• "Betula pumila L. var. glandulifera Regel. (Betulaceae). dog birch. Te Pillager Obijwa of North America inhaled the smoke of burning cones (on hot coals) to treat catarrh (Smith 1932)." [UAPDS]
• Bark:
• Betula pendula; "The inner bark is bitter and astringent, it is used in treating intermittent fevers[4]." [PFAF]
• Leaf:
• Betula Sp; "Birch leaves have a mild saluretic effect and are antipyretic. In animal tests, they have been shown to increase the amount of urine." [PDR]
• Betula pendula; "The young shoots and leaves secrete a resinous substance which has acid properties, when combined with alkalis it is a tonic laxative[4]." [PFAF]
• Betula pendula; "They also contain phytosides, which are effective germicides[7]." [PFAF]
• Betula pendula; "An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of gout, dropsy and rheumatism, and is recommended as a reliable solvent of kidney stones[4]." [PFAF]
• Betula pendula; "The young leaves and leaf buds are harvested in the spring and dried for later use[238]." [PFAF]

Phytochemicals

• Triterpene alcohol ester with saponin-like effect: betulatriterpene saponins
  
• Flavonoids: including hyperoside, quercetin, myricetin digalactosides Proanthocyan idins
  
• Volatile oil: including sesquiterpene oxide
  
• Monoterpene glucosides: including betula alboside A and B, roseoside
  
• Caffeic acid derivatives: including chlorogenic acid
  
• Ascorbic acid
  
• 3,4'-dihydroxy propiophenone-3-beta-D-glucoside [PDR]
• Betula Sp.; Guaiacol - Antitussive (dispels phlegm) [Encyclopedia of TCM V2]
• Betulinic Acid
• "The essential oil methyl salicylate in Betula now is produced synthetically, although it formerly was an economic item distilled in Appalachia (Foster and Duke 1990)." [Daniel F. Austin] "Uses Anti-inflammatory drug. In perfumery. Flavouring agent. UV-absorber in sunburn lotions." [DictsE5]
• B. alba; "Betulinic acid, usually obtained from the bark of the white birch Betula alba L., has been shown to possess a variety of biological properties including antibacterial, anti-HIV, antimalarial, antiinflammatory and anthelmintic activities (Yogeeswari and Sriram 2005). Betulonic acid and its derivatives have been studied as a new group of agents that reduce the side effects of cytostatics (Sorokina et al. 2004; Vasilevsky et al. 2011)." [Szakiel et al.,2012]
• B. pubescens; "Anti-retroviral, inhibition of topoisomerase, induction of apoptosis, production of ROS, activation of caspases" [Cho EBAMM]
• "Betulin (248), a triterpene that occurs in the bark of birch Betula papyrifera exhibits antifeedant activity against the aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer). A triterpenic glucoside (249) made from betulin is more active than the parent compound (Lugemwa et al. 1990)." [Koul PB]

• Birch Tar
• "Phenols (6%): including among others guaiacol, cresole, catechol, pyrogallol, 5-propyl-pyrogallol dimethyl ether and 5-methyl-pyrogallol dimethyl ether" [PDR]

Activities

Betula Sp;
"Analgesic (1; FAD); Antibacterial (1; PH2); Antiinflammatory (1; FAD; SHT); Antimelanomic (1; APA); Antipyretic (1; PHR; PH2); Antiseptic (1; APA); Aquaretic (1; SHT); Astringent (1; PNC); Counterirritant (1; FAD); Depurative (f; APA; PHR; PH2); Diuretic (2; APA; KOM; PIP; PH2); Parasiticide (1; PHR; PH2); Saluretic (1; PHR; PH2)." [HMH Duke]

"Alnus incana and A. viridis (Betulaceae) extracts exhibited significant cytotoxic effects toward HeLa cells, with IC50 values ranging from 26.02 to 68.5 Pg/ml (SteviÄ et al. 2010). Both species are used in folk medicine of Serbia in the form of infusion for the treatment of gastrointestinal and skin diseases." [Cho MMVC]

Diuretic: "Herbal diuretics probably work better in combination than singly. One animal study that investigated this issue found a combination of several mild diuretic herbal extracts (corn silk combined with Betula pubescens [birch] leaf, Crataegus laevigata [hawthorn] fruit, Fragaria vesca [strawberry] leaf, Matricaria recutita [chamomile] flower, and horse tail herb) superior to either horse tail by itself or hydrochlorothiazide.44" [CBMed]

Tar: "The aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in birch tar are irritating to die skin and have an antiparasitic effect. Its use for diverse skin conditions and for parasitic infestation such as scabies seems plausible." [PDR]

"Tars have been used for centuries to treat psoriasis. Tars derived from birch (Betula spp.), beech (Fagus spp.), or juniper (Juniperus spp.) trees (van Wyk and Wink 2004) are antipruritic and antiproliferative. They are used in a 5–10% concentration in creams, gels, and soaps. They are photosensitizing compounds, so judicious exposure to sunlight can be benefcial, or they can be used in conjunction with ultraviolet B (UV-B; 250–320 nm) or narrowband UV-B (311 nm)." [Benzie HM]

• Betula spp. - Fresh leaf tincture - 10-20% added to a formula for treating chronic prostatis. The major actions are anodyne and inflammation modulating. [CBMed]
• Betula pendula; "Anti-inflammatory, cholagogue, diaphoretic[21, 165, 201]. The bark is diuretic and laxative[7]." [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens;"Anti-inflammatory, cholagogue, diaphoretic[21, 165, 201]." [PFAF]
• B. pendula; "The vernal sap is diuretic[4]." [PFAF]
• B. pendula; "The buds are balsamic[7]." [PFAF]
• B. pendula; "The leaves are anticholesterolemic and diuretic[7]." [PFAF] B. pubescens; "The leaves are anticholesterolemic and diuretic[7]. " [PFAF]
• Betula pubescens; "The bark is diuretic and laxative[7]. The inner bark is bitter and astringent, it is used in treating intermittent fevers[4]." [PFAF]

Birch Bark Horn

“Ethnobotanists often mention the use of plant materials to make musical instruments, yet seldom explore the importance of these artefacts A look into the history of three instruments in Kew's Economic Botany Collections provides some fascinating details about the folk music of Europe. Made before the turn of the 20th century in Switzerland, Norway, and Finland, each one has a birch (Betula sp ) component and, more importantly, represents a key element in a folk music tradition.
Traditionally, Swiss herdsmen also relied on these instruments to signal danger and communicate with other herdsmen (Gelser 1976). Biachels were made of three pieces of spruce (Picea sp.) or poplar (Populus sp), each piece cut in half length-wise and painstakingly hollowed out, then glued back together. The three sections were joined and, In the early summer when the sap was rising, a strip of birch bark was wound directly around the bare wooden tube (Gelser 1976) This wrapping not only helped to hold the pieces together but prevented the wood from splitting and causing air leaks which would result in poor sound quality (William Hopson pers. comm.)” [BirchHorns]

Industrial Uses

"Several features of birch wood make it very useful for veneer and plywood production. According to the prognosis of FAO the veneer production in Europe will increase by 3-4% per year. Most of the pulpwood produced from birch is used in the cellulose industry. However, high quality semi-chemical pulpwood can be produced because of the relative stability of its hemicellulose and the low lignin content. The fuel value of birch is high, thus constituting a great potential as a source of energy. Birch can also be used in the furniture industry, for the production of fiber boards and several chemical and biochemical products as rosin, cattle food, acetone and glycerol." [Ahuja MWP]

Commercial Uses

• Betula alba - Turpentine - Used in the preservation of leather and wood [Bajaj MAPS 1]
• Betula lenta - Methyl salicylate - Used for perfumery, flavoring; counterirritant [Bajaj MAPS 1]

Anti-Cancer

B. papyrifera; "One elder, Rita Blumenstein of Anchorage, said the inner bark can be used to treat cancer. The bark is gathered in May, before the tree gets its leaves. It should be scraped, dried and crushed into a powder. One teaspoon is boiled for three minutes with eight cups of water in a non-aluminum pot. After cooling the decoction, one should drink 1/3 of a cup three times a day, with a meal, in the morning, at noon and at night, for 16 days. The whole procedure can be repeated as needed. However, Rita warned that it should not be combined with chemotherapy. To store the medicine, strain it with cheesecloth and put it in the refrigerator. The same preparation can also be used in a steam bath to treat asthma." [Jernigan EYK]

Cultivation

"A short-term freezing treatment during the chilling period also promotes dormancy release in two birch species ( Betula pubescens and Betula pendula) (Rinne et al. 1997, 2001)." [Anderson APD]

• Fungi;
• "Not only do ectomycorrhizal fungi produce degradative enzymes, but they differ in their abilities to do so.... For example, Abuzinadah and Read (1989a) found differences in protein utilization among Hebeloma crustuliniforme, Amanita muscaria, and Paxillus involutus on birch (Betula pendula) seedlings." [Dighton TFC]
• Fomes Pinicola; "This polyporous bracket fungus grows only on paper birch trees (Betula papyrifera) far inland from the coast of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. It is purchased from Eskimos in Bethel. The fungus is burned and the ashes are added to chewing tobacco and snuff to give it a powerful "kick." The use of this fungus is widespread among Indian and Eskimo groups in Alaska (e.g., McKennan 1959:^0; Osgood 1937:^6) and its use was reported in the Bering Sea coast region by Nelson (l899:27l)." [Ager, 1980]
• Inonotus obliquus; "The wood-rotting fungus, Inonotus obliquus (Pers. ex Fr.) Pilat, Hymenochaetaceae, Basidiomycetes, is found in northern hardwood forests, chiefly in the circumpolar or mountainous areas of Europe, Asia, and North America. The fungus occurs widely in birches (Betula)" [Bajaj MAPS6]
• Nutrition
• "For birch (Betula pendula Roth.) seedlings, decreased magnesium availability in the rhizosphere had no effect on root branching pattern but decreased root length, root diameter, and root dry weight (36). In addition, the fraction of dry matter allocated to the leaves increased even though overall leaf area decreased (36)." [Barker HPN]

Propagation

"Birch is generally propagated via seeds. The limitations of sexual reproduction are seed crop failure, low germination rate and genetically non-uniform offspring. Vegetative propagation has been practised in the selection of mother trees for breeding programs and the establishment of seed orchards with controlled pollination. Various methods of vegetative propagation have been used, such as budding, grafting and rooting of cuttings. However, many problems are associated with vegetative propagation." [Ahuja MWP]

Uses of Non-local Species

• Sweet-birch
• "This oil is prepared from the bark of sweet-birch (Betula lenta) and is very much like oil of wintergreen (54). The main constituent is methyl salieylate. Most of the oil is produced in Connecticut and Tennessee. After the bark is chipped, it is steeped in warm water for 12 hours or so, then steamdistilled. It is reported that the methyl salieylate in the oil is produced by enzymatic action during the steeping period. About five pounds of oil are produced per ton of bark chips. Tile oil is used as a flavoring agent for drugs and candies." [Anderson,1955]
• Betula alba; "The bark contains betulin, a resinous substance, and betulalbin. The bark of the black variety contains glucosides, gaultherin, and an essential oil. Winternitz and Jenicke both recommend the remedy for its diuretic effect and for its influence in dissolving kidney stones." [Ellingwood]
• "Betula utilis D. Don. (Betulaceae). Himalayan birch. The papery bark of this birch tree was burned in India (Singh, G. S. 2000) and Nepal for incense and religious purposes (Manandhar 2002)" [UAPDS]
• Alnus incana subsp. rugosa "Alnus (atushpi in Cree) bark is widely used for the treatment of skin conditions and diabetic sores [20] and was among the top eight antidiabetic treatments in the Cree territories [6]. Within the Cree Nations of Canada, a number of uses have been mentioned in the literature: coughs, sore throat, mouth sores [13, 17], sore eyes and laxative [19]." [Jetter PBFA]
• "Alnus incana (L.) Moench ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung (alder, k'oh). Leafy branches are leaned against the outer walls offish smokehouses to trap the smoke inside the house. Formerly, inner bark was boiled into a tea used for colds. (Nos. 786, 821,839)." [Holloway&Alexander, 1990]

Additional Notes

"The genus Betula is known for its prolific hybridization that has resulted in difficult to identify hybrid swarms (Brayshaw 1996)." [E-flora]

Caterpillar Host Plant:

• "Birches (Betula spp.) Canadian Tiger Swallowtail, Compton Tortoiseshell, Early Hairstreak, Mourning Cloak" [Allen Caterpillars]

Ant Host Plant:

• "Laine and Niemela (1980) noted that ants tended homopterans on birch (Betula) trees in Finland but rapidly turned to active predation during an outbreak of the caterpillar Oporinia autumnata. They concluded that the presence of the ants on the trees, in part a result of the homopteran colonies, greatly reduced damage by the leaf-eating caterpillar." [Beattie TEEAPM]

Jounrnals of Interest

• Mason PA , Last FT , Pelham J , Ingleby K (1982) Ecology of some fungi associated with an ageing stand of birches (Betula pendula and B. pubescens) . For Ecol Manage 4 : 19 – 39
• P.S. Kidd, J. Proctor. Effects of aluminium on the growth and mineral composition of Betula pendula Roth. J. Exp. Bot. 51:1057–1066, 2000.
• Ingleby K, Last FT, Mason PA (1985) Vertical distribution and temperature relations of sheathing mycorrhizas of Betula spp. growing on coal spoil. For Ecol Manage 12:279-285

Betula Pendula - European Birch

• Family: Betulaceae (Birch family) [E-flora]

[3] Betula pendula

Habitat / Range Bogs or marshes in the lowland zone; frequent horticultural escape in the lower Fraser Valley, less common on extreme SE Vancouver Island; introduced from Eurasia. [IFBC-E-flora]

General: Deciduous tree, 10-30 m tall; bark thick, rough, dark brown, furrowed, often peeling; twigs glandular, numerous small glands, sometimes sticky; branch ends often drooping. [IFBC-E-flora]

Introduction:
Betula pendula is an introduced European tree species that is now found in North America. In the US, it is reported from CO, CT, IA, IL, IN, KY, MA, ME, MI, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OR, PA, VA, VT, WA, WI, and, in Canada, it is reported from BC, MB, NB, NS, ON, PE (USDA 2010). In British Columbia, it is found in the southwestern corner of the province, and is well established in the Fraser River delta where it has heavily invaded bogs and is widespread. Like other birches, it hybridizes readily, and can produce hybrid swarms. It is tolerant of acid wet conditions and will grow in brackish water (Klinkenberg, personal observation). The earliest specimen record for this species in the UBC Herbarium is a collection from the Fraser River delta by Vladimir Krajina in 1948, from the Lulu Island Bog. References: USDA. 2010. Plant profile for Betula pendula. United States Department of Agriculture. Available Online.[E-flora]

Betula papyrifera - Paper birch

[1] Betula papyrifera

[2] Betula papyrifera

Subtaxa Present in B.C.

• Betula papyrifera var. commutata
  
• Betula papyrifera var. papyrifera [E-flora]

General: Deciduous tree, 10-30 m tall; bark white, yellowish- to reddish-brown or dark grey, often peeling; twigs hairy with both short and long hairs. [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat/Range: Moist to mesic woodlands, forests, clearcuts, burns and open areas in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; var. commutata - frequent in extreme SW BC, var. papyrifera - common throughout BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF, and S to MN, PA, CO and NE OR. [IFBC-E-flora]

Status: Native [E-flora]

Betula pubescens - Silver birch

[4] Betula pubescens

[5] Betula pubescens

Introduction: Betula pendula is an introduced European tree species that is now found in North America. In the US, it is reported from CO, CT, IA, IL, IN, KY, MA, ME, MI, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OR, PA, VA, VT, WA, WI, and, in Canada, it is reported from BC, MB, NB, NS, ON, PE (USDA 2010). In British Columbia, it is found in the southwestern corner of the province, and is well established in the Fraser River delta where it has heavily invaded bogs and is widespread. Like other birches, it hybridizes readily, and can produce hybrid swarms. It is tolerant of acid wet conditions and will grow in brackish water (Klinkenberg, personal observation). The earliest specimen record for this species in the UBC Herbarium is a collection from the Fraser River delta by Vladimir Krajina in 1948, from the Lulu Island Bog. [USDA-E-flora]

General: Deciduous tree, 10-30 m tall; bark thick, rough, dark brown, furrowed, often peeling; twigs glandular, numerous small glands, sometimes sticky; branch ends often drooping. [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat/Range: Bogs or marshes in the lowland zone; frequent horticultural escape in the lower Fraser Valley, less common on extreme SE Vancouver Island; introduced from Eurasia. [IFBC-E-flora]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Additional Notes: The genus Betula is known for its prolific hybridization that has resulted in difficult to identify hybrid swarms (Brayshaw 1996). [E-flora]

Synonyms: Betula verrucosa Ehrh.[E-flora]

Betula pumila var glandulifera - Low birch

[6] Betula pumila

Subtaxa Present in B.C.

• Betula pumila var. glandulifera [E-flora]

General: Deciduous shrub, 0.5-3 m tall; twigs densely hairy, slightly glandular. [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat/Range: Wet to moist bogs, fens, marshes, meadows and seepage slopes in all vegetation zones; frequent throughout BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains, rare in extreme SW BC; N to AK, YT and NT, E to PQ, and S to WY and OR. [IFBC-E-flora]

Status: Native [E-flora]

References

• Ager, 1980 - Ager, Thomas A., and Lynn Price Ager. "Ethnobotany of the Eskimos of Nelson Island, Alaska." Arctic Anthropology (1980): 26-48.
• Anderson,1955 - Anderson, Arthur B. "Recovery and utilization of tree extractives." Economic Botany 9.2 (1955): 108.
• [BirchHorns] COLLECTIONS CORNER, BETULA MAKES MUSIC IN EUROPE: THREE BIRCH HORNS FROM KEW'S ECONOMIC BOTANY COLLECTION, Economic Botany 56(4) pp. 303-305 2002
  
• [E-flora]
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Betula%20occidentalis&redblue=Both&lifeform=2 [Accessed: 3/27/2015]
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Betula%20papyrifera&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Feb 3, 2018
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Betula+pendula&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Jan 12, 2015
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Betula%20pumila&redblue=Both&lifeform=4, Accessed Feb 11, 2018
  
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?NoTransfer=1&sciname=Betula%20pubescens&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Feb 13, 2018
• [Jepson] John O. Sawyer, Jr. 2012, Betula, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=9114, accessed on February 03, 2019.
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Betula+pendula, Accessed Aug 22, 2018
  
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Betula+pubescens, Accessed Aug 22, 2018
• [Szakiel et al.,2012] Szakiel, Anna, et al. "Fruit cuticular waxes as a source of biologically active triterpenoids." Phytochemistry Reviews 11.2-3 (2012): 263-284.

Image References

• [1] Paul Asman and Jill Lenoble, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [2] Laval University, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [3] Andrew Butko, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [4] Willow, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [5] Robert Flogaus-Faust, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [6] Laval University, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons